Quarks are the reason protons have a positive charge. Each quark has a fraction of an electric charge. A proton has two up ...

WE have recently been able to prove that the following laws first discovered in the X-ray field, namely (1) the Moseley law, (2) the regular-doublet, or Sommerfeld, law, and (3) the irregular ...

there is an excess of positively charged holes (which are vacancies due to the lack of valence electrons). Near the junction of the two layers, the electrons on one side of the junction (n-type layer) ...

Molecular crystals with conductivity and magnetism, due to their low impurity concentrations, provide valuable insights into valence electrons. They have helped link charge ordering to ...